Reconstruction Ended With The Election Of ___ As President.

The era of Reconstruction, a tumultuous period following the American Civil War, aimed to rebuild the shattered nation and integrate formerly enslaved people into society. Reconstruction ended with the election of Rutherford B. Hayes as president in 1876, marking a significant turning point in American history and signaling the retreat from federal efforts to protect Black civil rights in the South.

The Promise and Challenges of Reconstruction

Reconstruction, spanning from 1865 to 1877, was a complex and multifaceted undertaking. It involved not only physical rebuilding of the war-torn South but also fundamental changes in its social, political, and economic structures.

• Presidential Reconstruction (1865-1866): Initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and continued by his successor, Andrew Johnson, this phase focused on quickly readmitting the Confederate states into the Union. Lincoln's "Ten Percent Plan" offered amnesty to former Confederates who pledged allegiance to the Union, and states could be readmitted once 10% of their voters had taken this oath. Johnson's approach was even more lenient, granting pardons to many Confederate leaders and allowing Southern states to enact "Black Codes" that severely restricted the rights of African Americans.
• Radical Reconstruction (1867-1877): Frustrated by Johnson's leniency and the South's resistance to change, Radical Republicans in Congress took control of Reconstruction. They passed the Reconstruction Acts, which divided the South into five military districts, required states to draft new constitutions guaranteeing Black suffrage, and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, granting citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States.

Despite the ambitious goals of Reconstruction, it faced numerous challenges:

• Southern Resistance: White Southerners, particularly former Confederates, resisted Reconstruction efforts through violence, intimidation, and political maneuvering. Groups like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used terror tactics to suppress Black voters and undermine Republican rule.
• Political Divisions: Deep divisions existed within the Republican Party regarding the scope and duration of Reconstruction. Some Republicans favored a more limited role for the federal government, while others advocated for stronger measures to protect Black rights.
• Economic Hardship: The South's economy was devastated by the war, and Reconstruction policies often exacerbated these problems. Corruption and mismanagement plagued many Southern state governments, leading to increased debt and taxes.
• Northern Weariness: As the years passed, many Northerners grew tired of Reconstruction and lost interest in intervening in Southern affairs. Economic issues, political scandals, and the perception that Reconstruction was failing contributed to this decline in support.

The Disputed Election of 1876

The presidential election of 1876 between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel Tilden proved to be a turning point in Reconstruction. The election was one of the most contested in American history, with widespread allegations of fraud and voter intimidation on both sides.

• Tilden's Apparent Victory: On election night, Tilden appeared to have won the election, securing 184 electoral votes, just one short of the majority needed to win the presidency. Hayes received 165 electoral votes, but the results in four states—Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon—were disputed.
• Disputed Electoral Votes: In Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina, both Republican and Democratic parties claimed victory, citing widespread voter fraud and intimidation. In Oregon, a technicality involving a disqualified Republican elector led to further complications. The disputed electoral votes left the outcome of the election uncertain.
• The Electoral Commission: To resolve the crisis, Congress created a special Electoral Commission composed of fifteen members—five senators, five representatives, and five Supreme Court justices. The commission was evenly divided between Republicans and Democrats, with one independent justice, David Davis, expected to cast the deciding vote. However, Davis resigned from the commission after being elected to the Senate, and he was replaced by a Republican justice, Joseph Bradley.
• Hayes Declared Winner: The Electoral Commission voted along party lines, 8-7, to award all the disputed electoral votes to Hayes, giving him a narrow victory of 185 electoral votes to Tilden's 184. The decision was met with outrage by Democrats, who threatened to filibuster the results and potentially plunge the nation into another crisis.

The Compromise of 1877

To avert a potential constitutional crisis, Republican and Democratic leaders negotiated a compromise that would ultimately seal the fate of Reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 involved several key agreements:

• Hayes would be declared President: Democrats agreed to accept Hayes as president, ending their efforts to challenge the election results.
• Federal Troops would be withdrawn from the South: Hayes pledged to withdraw the remaining federal troops from Louisiana and South Carolina, effectively ending military intervention in Southern politics.
• Southern Democrats would be appointed to Patronage Positions: Hayes promised to appoint a Southerner to his cabinet and support federal funding for internal improvements in the South.

The Compromise of 1877 effectively ended Reconstruction. With the withdrawal of federal troops, Republican state governments in the South collapsed, and white Democrats regained control of state legislatures. This marked the beginning of the Jim Crow era, a period of segregation, disenfranchisement, and racial violence that would plague the South for decades.

The Aftermath of Reconstruction

The end of Reconstruction had profound and lasting consequences for African Americans in the South:

• Disenfranchisement: Southern states enacted a variety of measures to disenfranchise Black voters, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses. These laws effectively eliminated Black political participation and ensured white dominance in Southern politics.
• Segregation: Jim Crow laws mandated the segregation of public facilities, transportation, schools, and other aspects of life. These laws created a system of racial inequality that relegated African Americans to second-class citizenship.
• Violence and Intimidation: White supremacist groups like the KKK continued to terrorize Black communities, using violence and intimidation to enforce racial segregation and suppress Black aspirations.
• Economic Exploitation: African Americans were often trapped in a cycle of poverty and debt peonage, working as sharecroppers or tenant farmers on land owned by white landowners. They were often cheated out of their earnings and denied opportunities for economic advancement.

A Review of Reconstruction: Successes and Failures

Reconstruction was a period of both progress and disappointment. While it achieved some notable successes, it ultimately fell short of its goals:

Successes

• Abolition of Slavery: The Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the United States.
• Citizenship and Equal Protection: The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved people.
• Black Suffrage: The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
• Rebuilding the South: Reconstruction governments invested in infrastructure improvements, such as railroads, roads, and schools, helping to rebuild the South's economy.
• Establishment of Black Institutions: Reconstruction led to the establishment of Black churches, schools, and other institutions that played a vital role in African American communities.

Failures

• Failure to Protect Black Rights: Reconstruction failed to adequately protect Black civil rights in the South. White Southerners resisted Reconstruction efforts through violence, intimidation, and political maneuvering, effectively nullifying many of the gains made by African Americans.
• Economic Inequality: Reconstruction did little to address the economic inequality that existed between Black and white Southerners. African Americans remained largely landless and impoverished, dependent on white landowners for their livelihoods.
• Political Corruption: Corruption and mismanagement plagued many Reconstruction governments, undermining their legitimacy and effectiveness.
• Northern Weariness: As the years passed, many Northerners grew tired of Reconstruction and lost interest in intervening in Southern affairs. This decline in support weakened the federal government's ability to enforce Reconstruction policies.
• Lasting Racial Prejudice: Reconstruction failed to eradicate racial prejudice in the United States. White supremacy remained deeply ingrained in Southern society, and African Americans continued to face discrimination and oppression long after Reconstruction ended.

The Jim Crow Era: The Rise of Segregation

The end of Reconstruction marked the beginning of the Jim Crow era, a period of state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. These laws, enacted between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries, legalized discrimination against African Americans in virtually every aspect of life.

Key Aspects of the Jim Crow Era

• Segregation of Public Facilities: Jim Crow laws mandated the segregation of schools, hospitals, transportation, restaurants, restrooms, and other public facilities. These laws created separate and unequal facilities for Black and white people.
• Disenfranchisement of Black Voters: Southern states used a variety of tactics to disenfranchise Black voters, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses. These laws effectively eliminated Black political participation and ensured white dominance in Southern politics.
• Restrictions on Black Employment: African Americans were often restricted to low-paying jobs and denied opportunities for advancement. They were also excluded from many professions and trades.
• Social Etiquette and Customs: Jim Crow laws and customs dictated strict social rules that governed interactions between Black and white people. These rules reinforced white supremacy and maintained a system of racial hierarchy.
• Violence and Intimidation: White supremacist groups like the KKK continued to terrorize Black communities, using violence and intimidation to enforce racial segregation and suppress Black aspirations.

Examples of Jim Crow Laws

• Education: Many Southern states had laws that required separate schools for Black and white children. These schools were often unequal in terms of funding, resources, and quality of education.
• Transportation: Jim Crow laws mandated separate seating on buses, trains, and other forms of public transportation. Black passengers were often forced to sit in the back of the bus or in separate train cars.
• Public Accommodations: Restaurants, hotels, theaters, and other public accommodations were often segregated, with separate facilities for Black and white customers.
• Marriage and Relationships: Laws prohibited interracial marriage and relationships, reinforcing racial segregation and maintaining white purity.

Impact of the Jim Crow Era

The Jim Crow era had a devastating impact on African Americans in the South. It created a system of racial inequality that relegated them to second-class citizenship and denied them opportunities for economic, social, and political advancement. The legacy of Jim Crow continues to affect American society today, contributing to racial disparities in education, employment, housing, and the criminal justice system.

Reconstruction's Unfinished Revolution

Reconstruction remains a subject of debate among historians, with differing interpretations of its successes and failures. Some scholars argue that Reconstruction was a noble experiment that ultimately failed due to Southern resistance and Northern indifference. Others emphasize the achievements of Reconstruction, such as the abolition of slavery, the expansion of civil rights, and the rebuilding of the South.

Despite its shortcomings, Reconstruction laid the foundation for the modern civil rights movement. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, ratified during Reconstruction, would later be used to challenge segregation and discrimination in the 20th century. The struggle for racial equality continues to this day, as Americans grapple with the legacy of slavery and segregation and strive to create a more just and equitable society.

FAQs About Reconstruction

• What were the main goals of Reconstruction?

  • The main goals of Reconstruction were to rebuild the South after the Civil War, readmit the Confederate states into the Union, and integrate formerly enslaved people into society as free and equal citizens.

• Why did Reconstruction fail?

  • Reconstruction failed due to a combination of factors, including Southern resistance, political divisions, economic hardship, Northern weariness, and a failure to adequately protect Black civil rights.

• What was the Compromise of 1877?

  • The Compromise of 1877 was an informal agreement that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876. In exchange for Democrats accepting Rutherford B. Hayes as president, Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.

• What were the Jim Crow laws?

  • Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted in the Southern United States between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries. These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans in virtually every aspect of life.

• What is the legacy of Reconstruction?

  • The legacy of Reconstruction is complex and contested. While Reconstruction failed to achieve its goals of racial equality, it did lay the foundation for the modern civil rights movement. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, ratified during Reconstruction, would later be used to challenge segregation and discrimination in the 20th century. The struggle for racial equality continues to this day, as Americans grapple with the legacy of slavery and segregation and strive to create a more just and equitable society.

Conclusion

Reconstruction's end, marked by Rutherford B. Hayes's election and the subsequent Compromise of 1877, was a pivotal moment in American history. It signified the abandonment of federal efforts to protect Black civil rights in the South, leading to the rise of the Jim Crow era and decades of segregation and discrimination. While Reconstruction achieved some notable successes, such as the abolition of slavery and the expansion of civil rights, it ultimately fell short of its goals due to Southern resistance, political divisions, and Northern weariness. The legacy of Reconstruction continues to shape American society today, reminding us of the ongoing struggle for racial equality and the importance of confronting the past to build a more just future.